Report on the seminars on
'Corruption in Public Administration' held at Barisal, Bogra and Dhaka

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Introduction
Administration
Politics
Economy
Education
Health
Police
Law and Justice
The Watchdog Agencies
The Mass Media
Conclusion

Introduction

Corruption today has its roots deep inside Bangladesh society. It has now become an inseparable part of the country's cultural moorings. The general masses routinely fall prey to corruption in different shapes and forms. It not only hampers economic growth, local and foreign investments are also discouraged in the process. The availability of resources decrease, poverty rises and efforts for human development are jeopardized.

Corruption has gradually evolved over time in this part of the world. But the incidence of corruption has increased with the gradual flourishing of civilization. There was no scope for corruption in primitive societies due to absence of complexities. The Greek and Roman civilizations were known to have been afflicted with this malaise in different degrees. Corruption was then political in nature. Some information on corruption in the Indian subcontinent in ancient times has also been found. In the 'Artho Shashtra' of Koutilya written more than two millenniums ago, mention has been made of forty techniques of siphoning off money by the government employees. Some evidences are also there about corruption in administration, judiciary and commerce of ancient India.

During the Hindu era and later, six hundred years of Muslim rule, no large-scale corruption was observed. It proliferated in the subcontinent mainly during the rule of the East India Company. In order to make money through different means, the company at first established itself as a commercial power, then as a political power. Although employees belonging to the higher echelons did not indulge in corruption, as their salary was quite high, widespread corruption was observed among lower level employees.

After the emergence of Pakistan, many wealthy businessmen from the Hindu community left the country for India. A newly formed business class of Pakistan soon replaced them. Becoming rich overnight, these businessmen attempted to make quick profits on a massive scale. They therefore had to develop close liaison with the bureaucracy. As a consequence, corruption rapidly spread within the administrative structures of Pakistan. And after the imposition of Martial Law in 1958, corruption increased manifold following an initial period of restraint. It did not remain confined within bureaucracy alone; politics also became corrupt and criminalized.

Since the emergence of Bangladesh in 1971, corruption has consistently increased over the years in both intensity and ferocity. During the 27 years following independence, corruption accounted for a staggering Taka 540 billion in only three sectors of the economy. The sectors were privatization of industries, banking and insurance and the Upazila Councils.

Corruption in Bangladesh emanates from both politics and administration. In most of the cases, it takes place in the form of bribery. Besides, misuse of power, nepotism, fraud and patron-client relationships also give rise to corruption. If the political process becomes corrupt, then naturally, administrative corruption also rises. Development efforts are today seriously hampered in Bangladesh due to the spiraling rise of corruption in all corners of bureaucracy and politics. The very existence of the state is threatened in the process.

With cooperation of the 'Public Administration Reforms Commission', the Bangladesh Chapter of 'Transparency International' organized two seminars on 'Corruption-free administration and social perspective' at the Caritas auditorium of Barisal on February 2, 1999, and at the Notrams auditorium of Bogra on June 10, 1999. Officials from various government departments, people's representatives, politicians, teachers, journalists and representatives from various professional bodies participated in the deliberations. Another seminar was organized by TI-Bangladesh in Dhaka on 'Corruption in public administration'. Held at the CIRDAP auditorium on September 2, 1999, papers were presented at the seminar by eminent economist Professor Muzaffer Ahmad, former Comptroller and Auditor General M Hafizuddin Khan, Chairman of the National Board of Revenue Abdul Muyid Chowdhury and the Chief Economist of the World Bank Kapil Kapoor. The topics of the papers were:- 'combating corruption in public enterprises', 'the role of anti-corruption watchdogs in public administration', 'financial transparency and accountability', and 'international experience in combating corruption'.

During these three seminars in Barisal, Bogra and Dhaka, the speakers dwelt on the corruption scenario, its causes and effects in Bangladesh, and put forward recommendations for tackling it through institutional, legal and other means. Those deliberations are elaborated below.

Administration

The present administrative structure in Bangladesh is a legacy of the colonial administrative system. A colonial mentality still prevails here, which is mainly responsible for delays in decision making, bureaucratic complexities and widespread corruption. Discriminations are quite often resorted to in appointments, promotions, training and salary/benefits in the administrative set-up. Although three decades have elapsed since the country achieved independence, an efficient and supportive civil service structure controlled by the people's representatives could not yet be built up.

The main reason for rampant corruption in administration is absence of strict enforcement of accountability. One of the main attributes of democratic governance is an accountable administration. In section 49 of the country's constitution, there is a clear provision for delegating authority in all layers of administration to the elected representatives as spelt out by legal provisions. Despite constitutional compulsions, participation of the people in administration could not yet be ensured due to a section of people who want to maintain the status quo to serve their own interest. As per the constitution, the people were supposed to be the source of all power. But instead, a top-heavy bureaucracy with its bastion at the secretariat has become the source of all power.

This centralized administration has established absolute authority over all aspects of the state from policy formulation to program implementation. Administration has therefore become a bastion of corruption in the absence of transparency and accountability. Although the task of controlling corruption has been reposed on bodies like the Bureau of Anti-corruption, it has not yet been placed under an independent constitutional authority; many in this organization itself, therefore, get involved in corruption.

In contrast, Japan - which is one of the most economically prosperous countries of the world - has an administrative structure that is well planned, technology-based and highly developed. Computerization is also a must if administrative transparency and accountability is to be ensured and the menace of red-tapism is to be eliminated from Bangladesh. The system of filing and movement of files in Bangladesh bureaucracy is quite out-dated. In the past, there was rigorous coordination among different departments at district level. Monthly evaluation of the work of different departments also used to take place. Nowadays, many departments remain unrepresented even at the monthly coordination meetings. As a result, there is lack of discipline in the functioning of different departments.

Duplication of work is also observed among these departments. Consequently, there is much wastage of government resources. Due to frequent changes in government policies and decisions, there is wastage of both money and resources. This trend is observed especially when there is a change in government.

Presently, the efficiency and suitability of government employees are measured through the Annual Confidential Reports (ACR). Proper evaluation of employees does not take place through this method. It is often observed that good marks are obtained by maintaining good relationship with the superior officer even when one shows negligence in discharging his duties and responsibilities. In the case of promotions, seniority rather than merit is given priority.

The institutions that impart training to government employees lack qualified instructors. It is observed in many cases that instructors are given postings as punishment. Again, many honest, efficient and qualified officers do not seek postings as instructors. As a consequence, the officers belonging to the government, semi-government and autonomous organizations do not receive proper or adequate training.

At the thana level, the Assistant Commissioner (Land) is in charge of land administration. They are appointed to this post after they qualify in the BCS examination. But the job responsibility here is very complex. As the newly appointed officers do not possess adequate knowledge about land administration, they have to rely on lower level personnel such as 'Kanungo', 'Tahsildar', and 'Surveyor'. As a result, there is much scope for corruption in land administration at thana level throughout the country.

One of the main reasons for not getting desired service from the government employees is the absence of a rigorous mechanism for ensuring accountability. Many of the officers suffer from bias in the discharge of their duties. They do not consider the poor people as an entity deserving respect. Their policies on how to behave with the general public are also not clear. After getting appointment in a job, they feel that the receipt of pension and other benefits after retirement (on completion of their service tenure) is a certainty. This deeply entrenched notion of the government servants regarding an absolutely secure service life acts as a deterrent in grooming an efficient and dynamic administration.

A centralized administration is responsible for excessive bureaucracy, delays in decision-making and lack of benefit for the people. These would be eliminated if decentralized administration and powerful local governments are put in place. The more the centralization of administration, the more is the pervasiveness of corruption. Absence of powerful local governments is one of the major causes of the increasing trend of corruption in the country.

The local governments in Bangladesh are still very weak. Especially in financial matters, they are excessively dependent on the central government. The chances of upholding public interest would be slimmer if the local governments are not activated and their funding and accountability are not ensured.

Since 1972, four commissions have been instituted for reforming the public administration. 28 smaller initiatives have also been taken. But no significant outcome has emerged from these in changing the Bangladesh administration for the better. One of the main reasons for this has been the absence of a permanent commission for administrative reforms.

Recommendations:

• For reducing corruption and ensuring accountability, the jobs in government service should be made temporary and contractual, where there would be clear mention of the duties and responsibilities of an official.

• The public administration will have to be made dynamic and time befitting, so that people get desired results from it. Merit - rather than seniority - should be made the prime criteria for promotions and provision of other facilities.

• Qualified, meritorious and honest people should be appointed as instructors in training institutes of government, semi-government and autonomous bodies.

• Assistant Commissioner (Land) should be appointed only after imparting adequate training on land administration.

• Instead of granting it to everybody in government service, pension facilities should be given only to those officials who serve the government with honesty, competence and efficiency.

• Accountability of government servants must be ensured. The local governments should be made stronger and the administration should be decentralized.

• The responsibilities as stipulated in the constitution should be devolved to the local governments. Different segments of the population including women should be adequately represented at local levels.

• Discrimination-free policies should be adopted for salary, promotion and training of all categories of government servants.

• Appointments to all posts in the secretariat starting from Deputy Secretary to Secretary should be made through open competition.

• An efficient civil service should be groomed up for the country's development under the stewardship of people's representatives.

• A mechanism for strict enforcement of accountability should be put in place for heads of different departments in order to make them fully responsible for their assignments at the local and executive levels of the administration.

• Effective measures should be taken to take stock of the wealth of government servants after their retirement through the Bureau of Anti-corruption or some other neutral entities.

• Computer technology should be quickly introduced in public administration to assist in efforts for ensuring transparency and accountability and reducing red-tapism.

• Honest and qualified officers should be assigned responsibilities in different projects of the state.

• Coordination between different departments at the district level should be strengthened. Attendance at the district coordination meetings should be made compulsory for all departmental heads.

• Education and training should be provided to government servants on ethics and morality.

• To reduce wastage of state resources and time, the administration should be barred from repeatedly or routinely changing decisions on a particular subject.

• Arrangement should be made for a session of self-criticism each month for all heads of units from the bottom to the top of administration hierarchy where the responsible official would present his case. During these review sessions, everybody would be praised for their good deeds and criticized for their bad ones.

• Coordination in the workings of different government departments should be strengthened.

• The scope of the Public 'Administration Reforms Commission' should not be confined to mere submission of recommendations; it should also have some role in implementation of those recommendations.

• The service conditions in public administration should be made more attractive and salary and benefits should be enhanced.

• Procedures for issuing passports, registration of lands, license for construction of different structures and issuance of permits should be simplified.

Politics

Corruption takes place mainly due to political reasons. If the political process becomes corrupt, then bureaucratic corruption automatically increases as a natural fallout. Excessive political influence is observed now-a-days in the present social context of Bangladesh. The administrative officials rely on political parties for promoting their own interests. Corruption spreads as a result. Many among the people's representatives lack adequate knowledge about government rules and regulations. The professional bureaucrats at the top take advantage of this ignorance of elected representatives.

Although the political parties speak of democracy, democracy is not practiced within the parties themselves. Corruption also spreads due to absence of democratic political process. It has now become a part and parcel of the culture of political patronization, as politics is not practiced properly in the country. Due to lack of political commitment and firmness, corruption has gradually increased in the country.

Different irregularities are also observed in the election process from submission of nomination papers to achieving victory in elections. A tendency is also observed among the big political parties to nominate loan defaulters, tax evaders and people involved in various crimes including terrorism. Restrictions on electoral expenses are also not obeyed in many cases. There are instances of electoral victories through obstructions to voters, vote-theft and capturing polling centers.

There is virtually no social resistance against corrupt people. Although the corrupt elements were once a socially despised lot, the situation is not the same anymore.

Questions may also be raised about how neutrally the Speaker behaves in Parliament. The parliament can not uphold public interest if one can not rise above party or individual interests. Accountability can not be ensured if the meetings of the parliamentary committees do not take place regularly. There is no provision for the ministers to face a no-confidence motion. The society will never be free of corruption if the political system remains corrupt.

Recommendations:

• Strong political commitment is required for combating corruption.

• Politicians should extend cooperation to neutral functioning of public administration. Political influence should never be exerted on the administration for mere self-interest.

• Democratization within the political parties themselves should be taken up.

• The people's representatives should be imparted training on government rules and regulations.

• The corrupt people should be resisted socially.

• National consensus should be forged on important national issues.

• Social movement should be launched for tackling corruption.

• Politics should be freed from corruption.

• While nominating candidates, local opinion should be given more weight rather than the decision of a parliamentary board.

• The practice of giving nominations to loan defaulters, tax evaders, pledge breakers, and people involved in various crimes including terrorism should be abandoned.

• Inquiries should be made about the amount, source and nature of electoral expenses.

• The Speaker of parliament should play a neutral role.

• The meetings of parliamentary committees should be held regularly and should remain open for participation by the general public.

• The time-management of parliament should be audited so that too much time is not wasted on calumny and praise.

• Public opinion should be elicited on bills that are submitted in parliament for public interest.

• There should be provisions for bringing no-confidence motions against individual ministers.

Economy

Bangladesh is known as a poverty-stricken country in the international arena. Floods, cyclones, droughts, tornadoes, excessive rains, hunger and famine constantly bedevil the country. In spite of these constraints, the farmers have succeeded in doubling food production in the country in a space of 28 years since independence. During 1969-70, 4 percent of agricultural lands were under mechanized irrigation. That rose to 8 percent in 1976-77 and 20 percent in 1985-86. But the dream of a poverty-free Bangladesh has not yet been materialized.

In recent years, the rate of decrease in incidence of poverty in the country has been only 0.5 percent. If the amount allocated in the budget for poverty reduction, relevant projects and NGO programs were put to use properly, then the poverty situation would not have been so hopeless. Absence of financial transparency is observed in Bangladesh to an extreme degree. Usually, people are not inclined to pay taxes; sometimes tax has to be collected forcibly.

The government receives grants and loans from the donor countries and agencies in the name of the people. But the people themselves do not always know where, how and in which sector that money is spent. The people are also excessively dependent on the government in different fields such as education, health, and law and order. The private sector plays only a minor role in these fields. There is not much scope for participation of the people in running these expensive government programs. Some of the NGOs take part in public welfare activities. But the main motive of most NGOs is commercial.

Only a small portion of the amount allocated by the government for the people actually reach them. The main beneficiaries of these allocations are the government contractors, political leaders and the bureaucrats. The people are routinely made victims of corruption while paying bills, land tax or income tax. The corrupt officials working in various offices are to be mainly blamed for that. People face similar harassment even when they go to courts while seeking justice.

Many people outside the public administration are also involved in corruption - individually or collectively. For example, smuggling, tax evasion, profiteering, fraud in selling/buying lands, under or over-invoicing, Hundi (money-laundering) business, women and child repression, etc. These crimes take place not only in developing countries like Bangladesh, but also in developed countries. But the difference is that, these criminals are punished in developed countries when caught. But here, it is easy to get away with bribery or acts of political influence.

In Bangladesh, the political leadership and the bureaucrats jointly allocate funds for the Annual Development Program. Lack of transparency is observed in its formulation due to non-involvement of the people and the media.

In many instances, influences are exerted on the decision-makers in the implementation of different infrastructure projects. In other words, priority is not given to those projects that would have benefited the state most. Where tenders are invited for project implementation, different irregularities are observed from selection to execution. Although the contractor and the concerned government employee benefit in the process, the state is the loser. Many also can not participate in the tendering process due to shortage of given time. In the event, the government does not get adequate opportunity for comparison and selection from among the bidders.

The Banking sector in Bangladesh is also infected with corruption. Many irregularities take place in the Banking sector including obtaining credit through influence peddling and non-execution of a project for which credit has been disbursed.

Tax evasion has become a culture in the country. Tax has to be paid if the annual income is over Taka 75,000. On the basis of this provision, there should have been 10 lakh taxpayers in Dhaka City. But in reality, only 2,80,397 persons are paying income tax in Dhaka. Besides, corrupt officials of the Tax department often entice people to pay only a part of the taxable amount to state treasury and in exchange pay a substantial portion of the balance to them as bribes. The taxpayer encounters harassment if he does not comply with the proposal.

Recommendations:

• The media and the general masses should be involved in formulation of Annual Development Program, alongside public representatives and the bureaucracy.

• Selection and execution of projects should be done on the basis of established priorities.

• The Annual Development Program should be formulated two years before the start of the financial year.

• Written opinion of concerned people should be elicited after implementation of a project.

• Adequate time should be given for participation in tenders.

• Effective measures should be taken for ensuring transparency and accountability in the banking sector.

• Sanction or allotment of government properties and facilities (such as Rajuk plots) should be made transparent.

• The procedure for submission of income tax should be simplified.

• The base of revenue income should be expanded.

• The tax administration should be reconstituted and its efficiency and effectiveness should be raised.

• The procurement evaluation reports should be made easily available to applicants.

• Opportunity for pre-shipment inspection should be provided to more than one organization on the basis of their efficiency and expertise.

• The responsibility of tax collection should be reposed to a private sector organization.

• Those individuals or organizations should be rewarded who pay tax regularly or the amount of paid tax is very high.

Education

The rate of literacy in Bangladesh is gradually rising. It has already reached 58 percent. There is also progress towards 100 percent enrolment rate and gender equity at primary level. But overall, the quality of education has not improved. Each year, the number of certificate-owning but barely educated students is on the rise. The educational arena is full of anarchy and disorder. There is no sign of emphasizing productive and vocational education. The country also lacks an effective education policy. As a result, corruption, in-discipline, terrorism, copying and use of fake certificates have assumed epidemic proportion.

Quality education has little scope in the prevailing circumstances. Although the rate of literacy has increased, corruption in the education department is also on the rise. The tendency to copy during examinations has sharply risen in recent years. The prevailing examination system is largely to be blamed for that. The teachers also get involved in corruption as a result. The present policies stipulate that exam centers can not be selected outside thana headquarters. But centers are selected by exerting political influence. And rampant copying takes place in many mofussil centers.

In the stipend program for girl students of classes six to ten, three of the prerequisites are at least 45 percent marks, no marriage until completion of class ten and at least seventy five days of class attendance. But the teachers of most schools resort to corruption to bring the girl students under the purview of the stipend program. It is even seen in many cases that not a single student in the school is outside the purview of the program; girls are given stipend by showing extra attendance and marks.

In matters of appointments and drawing of salaries in schools and colleges under the MPO, the teachers face harassment and corruption. No files move without bribes in the Department of Education. Corruption is now an all-pervasive phenomenon in the educational boards. The board has accorded recognition to many schools where the number of students is very low and teachers are not available as per requirement. There is also rampant corruption in distribution of certificates by the boards.

Presently, permission of the board is required for appointment of a teacher in a school. But when the question of getting sanction of salary arises, one has to approach the Department of Education. Again, the Text Book Boards take decisions on the textbooks for schools. But the syllabus is framed by the Education Boards. There is no coordination in the functioning of these entities.

Nowadays, many headmasters and teachers take bribes from the publishers while selecting books on English grammar, Bangla grammar, rapid reader, etc. for the schools. Low quality books are often selected in the process. The students are adversely affected as a result. Although teaching is considered to be a noble profession, many of those meritorious and highly qualified people who join the trade become dependent on private tuition. This is a bar to raising the quality of education. In government colleges, there are provisions for three promotions in fifteen years: eight years for getting promoted to the post of Assistant Professor, twelve years for Associated Professor and fifteen years for Professor. But widespread discriminations are observed in matters of promotion even when one possesses required qualification and experience. Similar discriminations are resorted to while transferring teachers. The rule regarding transfer of teachers after every three years is not followed rigorously. The mofussil teachers get discriminatory treatment while seeking transfers to the cities of Dhaka and Chittagong. The main cause of discriminations in transfers and promotions is corruption. A section of corrupt officials in the Education Department are involved in these transactions.

Only a portion of the money taken for admission to government schools and colleges are deposited in the treasury. The remainder goes to the pockets of people involved in the administration of these schools and colleges. Here, many teachers attach more importance to earning money than imparting education. Surplus students are often admitted to the educational institutions that often exceed the sanctioned seats.

The existing examination system is often blamed for the widespread tendency of copying in examinations. Currently, the local administration plays a prominent role in conducting the examinations. The role of the teachers is minor. The magistrates deputed to examination centers often get involved in corruption. Especially in mofussil centers, the magistrates given the responsibility of supervision of examination halls are sometimes seen arriving late sometimes at the fag end of the examination and leave after putting their signature in the attendance-sheet. Bribery is often involved in the process. Here, there is no mechanism for ensuring accountability.

In many educational institutions, the students do not receive facilities commensurate with the fee that is taken from them on account of Library, seminar, etc. Regular auditing is also not performed in many educational institutions although there is scope for corruption. In the countryside, the teachers usually do not discharge their duties properly. As the students are not imparted education and training in ethics and morality, many get involved in corruption when they enter a profession.

Large-scale employment generation is not possible due to limited scope for technical and vocational education and training in the country.

Recommendations:

• There is much scope for resorting to unfair means in the present examination system. Examinations should be conducted in such a way that there remains no room for taking recourse to unfair means.

• The administration should be free from political influence when examination centers are selected.

• Attendance should be the main criteria for sanctioning stipends to girl students between classes six and ten. Results in examinations need not be considered as a criterion.

• The procedure for appointing teachers at secondary and higher secondary levels should be simplified.

• The Public Service Commission should be given the responsibility of reducing complexities, delays and corruption in appointment of teachers.

• Highly qualified and meritorious teachers should be appointed in educational institutions to raise the standard of education.

• To make the teaching jobs attractive, honorarium equal to their salary should be paid to teachers.

• Student politics should be banned for a specified period.

• To eliminate corruption in educational boards, the responsibility of giving certificates should be gradually transferred to the respective educational institutions.

• Coordination between the education board, textbook board and education department should be enhanced.

• Neutral committees should be formed at district level for selection of textbooks (English grammar, Bangla grammar, and rapid reader) for educational institutions. The committee may comprise of the Deputy Commissioner, District Education Officer, 2 College Principals, 2 High school Headmasters and 2 retired teachers.

• The same textbooks should be selected for all educational institutions in a district.

• In order to ensure a corruption-free life for the next generation, meritorious children born during a specified period (for example between 2000 and 2010) should be groomed up properly so that they are able to take up the leadership of the country later on.

• As the children's and cultural organizations play an important role in grooming patriotic citizens, they should be accorded government patronization.

• Qualitative improvements should be brought about in education starting from the primary to the highest level.

• Non-discriminatory policies should be introduced for promotion and transfer of college teachers.

• Mass awareness should be generated regarding religious provisions on corruption and proper emphasis should be attached to religious education for combating corruption.

• The mofussil examination centers should be abolished for eliminating unfair means in examinations.

• The teachers should be given the major role in conducting secondary, higher secondary and degree level examinations.

• Audit of government schools and colleges should be carried out before a specified period each year.

• Widespread unemployment is a major cause for spread of terrorism and corruption in the country. Technical and vocational education and training should therefore be given proper emphasis for generation of employment.

• Extra or surplus students should not be admitted to schools and the capacity and number of seats available should be taken into consideration while admitting new students.

• The accountability of magistrates engaged in examination-center duties should be ensured.

• The mechanism for ensuring accountability of government primary school teachers should be strengthened.

• Ethical and moral education should be made compulsory for all students.

Health

Sweeping improvements can be brought about in the health sector of Bangladesh through proper utilization of existing manpower and resources and by introducing procedural improvements. Irregularities are often observed in the purchase of medicines by the Department of Health. The quantity of medicines purchased does not always tally with the budgeted amount sanctioned for the purpose. According to existing arrangement, medicines are purchased through tenders. Apart from organizations manufacturing medicine, other organizations and individuals can also participate in the bidding. The medicines are purchased at a price much higher than the market rate. And in actual practice, the quantity of medicines supplied is usually much less than what is mentioned in the papers. Some corrupt officials of the Health Department are involved in the whole process.

The government hospitals lack adequate clinical tools. A physician has to see excessive number of patients daily. Constrained by inadequate budgetary provisions of the government, only 8 percent of the patients receive proper treatment.

The relationships between the doctors and the patients are not healthy. Each year, many patients leave for the neighboring countries to receive better treatment. There are limited opportunities for career progression of the health professionals here. Some start their career as a Medical Officer and retire in the same post. Higher degrees are often required for promotion. As various rules and regulations restrict opportunities for higher education, not everybody can get the chance to obtain higher degree. Consequently, many physicians are presently dissatisfied with their profession.

Recommendation:

• There should be transparency in purchase of medicines by the government hospitals.

• In the tendering process for purchase of medicines, only the medicine-manufacturing firms should be given the opportunity to participate.

• The government should make arrangements for collection of information on the quantity of medicines purchased by various hospitals and their price.

• Budgetary allocation for the health sector should be increased.

• Adequate supply of clinical tools and gadgets to government hospitals and medical centers should be ensured.

• More physicians should be appointed to government hospitals and medical centers.

• Opportunities for higher education and training for physicians should be simplified.

• Supervision mechanism in the Department of Health should be strengthened.

• Due emphasis should be placed on improving the working relationship between the physicians and the patients.

Police

The general impression of the people about the police is poor. The people consider the police administration to be corrupt. Although the police are mainly responsible for maintaining law and order in the country, they are also involved - directly or indirectly - in controlling corruption. The number of policemen in the country is 110 thousand. The manpower of police has not, however, increased in proportion to the growth in population. A limited number of police remain engaged in maintaining law and order, because almost two thirds of the force remain busy with VIP duties. As a result, the ground is created for deterioration of law and order and spread of corruption.

The present administrative arrangement of the police force is also responsible to some extent for the corrupt practices of the police.

Each year, around 80-82 thousand cases are filed against the police personnel in the police headquarters. 50 to 60 thousand police also get punishment. Some of them even go to jail. But the situation has not improved. The police stations are supposed to play an important role in maintaining law and order, combating crime and reducing corruption. But a mere Inspector remains in charge of such an important institute. There is scarcity of efficient, well-trained and meritorious police officials in the thanas.

Recommendations:

• The rules and regulations of the police force should be modernized in the light of present socio-economic realities.

• More thanas should be set up in metropolitan areas for aiding the maintenance of law and order, combating crimes and reducing corruption.

• Private security arrangements should be made for the VIPs, so that the police can give more time and effort for public service.

• An Assistant Superintendent of Police belonging to the Bangladesh Civil Service should hold the charge of thanas or police stations.

• Before the appointment of ASPs as in-charge of the thanas, they should be given two years' training on running a model police station.

Law and Justice

The rule of law is almost non-existent in Bangladesh due to the increasing trend in corruption. The law is not applied equally here. For the weak and the strong, supporters and opponents of the ruling party, the application of law vary. In many developed countries of the world, there exist independent commissions to combat corruption. There is no such commission in Bangladesh.

The right of citizens is routinely curtailed here through application of section 54 of the penal code that empowers the police to arrest anybody if he appears suspicious. Consequently, there is much abuse of this provision. Transparency in application of law can not be brought about while this law is in vogue. There are currently many laws and policies in the country that are not appropriate in the present social context. Absence of appropriate laws and rules also result in spread of corruption. The law on women repression is being repeatedly abused. As there is no provision for bails in this law, many false cases are being instituted. Many people are unnecessarily harassed in the process. On the other hand, people charged with committing serious crimes get bails through different means and once again get involved in criminal activities to disturb social peace.

An independent and transparent judiciary is not possible unless the judiciary is separated from the executive. In many countries of the world, the functioning of the judiciary is computerized. As a result, the process of litigation is speeded up.

Many government servants do not follow the Official Secrets Act 1923 and the Government Servants' Conduct Rules 1979. The Bureau of Anti-corruption virtually plays no part in combating corruption in the country. This organization works in favor of the ruling political party.

Recommendations:

• As in Singapore, Australia or Hong Kong, an independent commission for combating corruption should also be set up in Bangladesh.

• Section 54 of the penal code should be abolished, because the police can arrest anybody through application of this section.

• A post can be created from among the members of parliament (with the rank and status of a cabinet minister) who would inquire into irregularities and allegations against the civil servants, would inspect different government organizations and submit recommendations. The parliament would take appropriate actions on the basis of his proposals.

• The functioning of the collective bargaining agents (CBA) in different government, semi-government and autonomous agencies should be suspended for a specified period.

• The parliamentary democracy should be given an institutional shape.

• The existing laws in the country should be properly applied and defective laws should be amended.

• An independent and transparent judiciary should be established.

• The judiciary should be separated from the executive.

• The Special Powers Act should be abolished.

• Thorough inquiries should be made before arresting anybody charged under Women Repression Act.

• Effective laws should be framed so that people charged with serious crimes do not get bail very easily.

• The functioning of the judiciary should be computerized so that the process of law is expedited.

• The Judiciary should be placed under the Supreme Court instead of the Law Ministry and a separate Secretariat should be set up for the purpose.

• The Official Secrets Act of 1923 should be amended and updated.

• Arrangements should be made to identify and punish the corrupt people and reward the honest and efficient civil servants.

The Watchdog Agencies

The pace of work in public administration has become almost stagnant. The people have to face innumerable problems and undergo untold sufferings due to corruption of public officials. Good governance has become almost impossible as a result of all-pervasive impact of corruption. To fight corruption, a sound base of good governance and national consensus must be built. The country's watchdog agencies can play a crucial role in building this base. The watchdog agencies that are working for ensuring accountability are in effect working for ensuring good governance. In Bangladesh, the Public Accounts Committee of the Parliament, the Comptroller and Auditor General, the Bureau of Anti Corruption and the Press Council act as watchdog agencies. There are also proposals for setting up the offices of the Ombudsman and the National Human Rights Commissioner.

Public Accounts Committee:

The first and foremost watchdog agency in the country is the Public Accounts Committee (PAC) of the parliament. The main task of the PAC is to ensure accountability of the administration in their use of state funds. Examining the audit reports prepared by the country's highest audit office ensures this accountability. After examining the audit reports of different government departments and local governments, if irregularities are found, then the matter is referred to the parliament along with recommendations on remedial measures. While examining the reports, the public accounts committee can take the hearing of concerned Principal Accounting Officer. But in practice, the committee has to constantly fight against various odds.

For example, presently more than 150 reports are lying with the committee for examination; the number is abnormally high. During the past 25 years, only 25 reports have been disposed off fully and 30 reports partially. However, the PAC of the present seventh parliament is comparatively more active. But even then, it could not be very successful because its normal functioning is constantly disrupted due to continuous addition of latest CAAG reports alongside those already under process.

One of the chief constraints of the PAC in Bangladesh is that there is no institutional mechanism for following up its decisions and recommendations. Neither is there any research or monitoring unit. Till today, the PAC has made hundreds of recommendations, but the government organizations have implemented only a few of those recommendations. But what is noticeable is that no organization has yet been accused of flouting or ignoring the PAC directives.

The recommendations of the PAC are placed in parliament after examination of reports. But there is no scope for discussing these reports in parliament. There are no guidelines in the parliamentary Rules of Procedure regarding what should be done with the submitted reports. It is only mentioned that the committee would submit the reports along with recommendations to the parliament. No initiative has yet been taken for reaching a consensus on how to overcome this constraint. The PAC does not have any Secretariat, nor is it provided with staff or other supports. Because of these limitations, the PAC can not play an effective role as a powerful watchdog body and consequently, can not make much of a contribution towards fight against corruption. In contrast, the PAC is the principal watchdog body in developed countries.

Comptroller and Auditor General:

The office of the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) is often dubbed as the highest audit institute of the country. This organization is legally empowered to audit the revenue and expenditure of all government offices and local government bodies. The main role of the CAG is to present different aspects of the governmental activities to the parliament in an objective and timely manner so that the parliament can keep an eye on the public administration.

The CAG has an important role to play in establishing an accountable government by making transparent the governmental functions through audit and accounts reports. Those Bangladeshi companies whose majority shares are owned by Bangladesh government also fall under the purview of CAG audit. The efficiency and effectiveness of this office depend to a large extent on the efficiency of the Parliament and the Public Accounts Committee. But the PAC is constantly burdened with a huge load of previously piled up reports as well as those that are continuously emerging out of the pipeline. As a result, the efficiency and effectiveness of the PAC has diminished. The lethargy and negative attitude of the previous governments regarding audit and the absence of democracy in the country for a long time are mainly responsible for this situation.

The CAG office face many problems, some of which are elaborated below. The Constitution of the country stipulates that the CAG will function independently. But the government's Rules of Business have curtailed the authority and independence of the CAG to a large extent. Apparently, this office is functioning as a subordinate office of the Ministry of Finance. It is dependent on the Ministries of Finance and Establishment for sanction of budget and manpower. According the Rules of Business, the CAG is to submit its reports to the President via the Prime Minister. This type of arrangement is found nowhere else in the world. Due to this provision, the independence and objectivity of the Auditor General's office becomes suspect. Recently, the CAG wanted to bring in some changes to its organizational and manpower structure. But the attempt did not bear fruit, as the government did not agree to the proposal. If the CAG does not enjoy independence regarding reorganization of its office and personnel, then it can never play an effective role.

As per the constitution, the Auditor General retires at the age of 60. But in India and Pakistan, the Auditor General retires either at 65 or after completion of 5 to 6 years of service, whichever is earlier. In the United States and Canada, the Auditor General serves for a tenure of 10 or 15 years. But in Bangladesh, the tenure of an Auditor General is very short. During this period he can not realize his objectives according to his mission and vision.

As the organizational structure of the CAG office is rather outdated in Bangladesh, the current requirements can not be fulfilled here. Thus, professional, objective and quality auditing can not be performed by this office.

Ombudsman:

The Ombudsman is an official appointed by the government who investigates various allegations made against the government functionaries by the people. The main objective of establishing the office of the Ombudsman is to protect the general citizens from the corruption and self-serving behavior of civil officials. The post of Ombudsman is created to act as an inquiry office on whether the government officials are obeying the laws of the land correctly and properly and whether the citizens are facing any harassment from them.

In the presence of an independent Ombudsman, the red-tapism and wayward behavior of civil administration decreases to a great extent. That is because the Ombudsman is a fully independent office that is accountable to none else other than the parliament. As a result, it can take immediate action on receipt of complaints against any corrupt official of the administration. This office should be immediately set up in Bangladesh, because corruption, wayward and lethargic behavior of the administration is increasing day by day. The people of the country have no place to go now with their complaints.

The Section 77 of the Constitution provides for the appointment of an Ombudsman in the country. It says that the Ombudsman will exercise his power in accordance with the law framed by the parliament. In the Ombudsman Act that was passed by parliament in 1980, it was stated that the law would be effective on the date the Ombudsman is appointed through a gazette notification. That Act made detailed provisions on the tenure, salary and benefits, working procedure and jurisdiction of the Ombudsman. All arrangements for unhindered functioning of the Ombudsman have been provided for in the law. Besides, the organizational structure of the Ombudsman's office and a list of relevant equipment and gadgets have also been given. Budget provisions were kept for the Ombudsman's office in the national budget of 1998-99, but nothing was ultimately done about it.

It is unfortunate that an Ombudsman has not yet been appointed even after 29 years of country's independence.

The Public Administration Reforms Commission has also strongly advocated for the appointment of an Ombudsman. But that recommendation has not yet seen the light of day.

Bureau of Anti-corruption:

Another watchdog agency is the Bureau of Anti-corruption. It usually works in countries where the incidence of corruption is very high. This organization has been created through an act of parliament and remains accountable to it. It is also supposed to enjoy complete independence in its functioning. In this respect, mention may be made of the Independent Commission against Corruption (ICAC) of the state of New South Wales in Australia. This organization has succeeded in significantly reducing corruption in the province. The ICAC investigates allegations of corruption, works with the public sector for introducing arrangements and procedures for combating corruption and informing the public sector and the society at large about the harmful effects of corruption along with the strategies and benefits of combating it.

Bangladesh has been identified as one of the most corrupt countries of the world. The responsibility of tackling corruption is mainly vested here on the Bureau of Anti-corruption (BAC). But many people are of the opinion that this organization itself is corrupt. The main difference between ICAC and BAC is that the latter has many limitations and does not have any preventive or public education program. ICAC, on the other hand, has sufficient strength to tackle corruption in all spheres of public life. The BAC also is constrained by the fact that it has to work in accordance with numerous act, ordinance and rules. It is controlled by the Prime Minister's Office. Like other government departments, the posts at all levels of BAC are transferable. Till today, no governments in Bangladesh have instituted corruption cases against people belonging to the ruling party or ordered any inquiry for the purpose.

According to the audit carried out by the office of Comptroller and Auditor General in 1994, it was observed that it took an abnormally long time to get approval of the authority and make inquiry about the person charged with any corruption-related offence. There are also examples of spending nine years by the authority before getting approval of the court for instituting a case. A delay of four or five years is a normal event.

Recommendations:

• The role of the Public Accounts Committee should be strengthened.

• An institutional set-up should be put in place for following up the decisions and recommendations of the Public Accounts Committee.

• The Rules of Procedure of Parliament should provide clear directives regarding what should be done with the recommendations of the Public Accounts Committee.

• A Secretariat should be established for the Public Accounts Committee.

• The Chairman of the Public Accounts Committee should be elected from among the oppositions MPs.

• Opportunities should be provided for independent functioning of the Comptroller and Auditor General. It should not remain dependent on ministries for budgetary provisions and appointment of personnel.

• The CAAG should be provided the opportunity to place the audit reports directly to the parliament instead of through the head of government.

• The CAAG should be given full freedom for reorganizing its structure and manpower.

• The tenure of the CAAG should be increased.

• Audit standard and audit methodology should be introduced in the office of the Auditor General and the existing auditing approach, techniques and reports should be reformed.

• The auditors should be imparted proper education and training.

• Financial audit should be linked to performance audit.

• Global comparison should be undertaken while performing audit. That means, comparisons should be made with other countries regarding treatment of revenue and expenditure.

• Instead of keeping it under the Chief Executive of the country, the Bureau of Anti-corruption should be allowed to function independently.

• The Bureau of Anti-corruption should be given such powers as to enable it to give decisions on whether a corruption case involving a political appointee should be referred to a court or should be sent for departmental action.

• The provision whereby permission of the Prime Minister has to be sought before referring a case (where a mid-level or high official of the government is involved) to a court should be rescinded forthwith.

• The efficiency of the officials of Anti-corruption Bureau should be raised and its appointment procedure should be made transparent.

• Informal public forums should be set up to identify the corrupt people at the local level.

• Transparency International can play a role in establishing anti-corruption watchdog bodies with the involvement of general citizens. Besides, seminars, workshops, etc. can be arranged to inculcate anti-corruption values among the younger generation.

The Mass Media

The twenty-first century is witnessing a tide of mass media throughout the world. The mass media has undergone tremendous change in the recent past with such vast number of newspapers and magazines, so many private radio and television channels, varieties of movies and innumerable books of differing tastes. The state-owned mass media can play a significant role in generating mass awareness against corruption. In many developed countries of the world including Singapore and Hong Kong, the state-owned mass media plays an effective role in creating public opinion against corruption through publicizing moral and ethical education. Bangladesh has not yet taken any such initiative till now. The role of the newspapers is no less important in combating corruption. Presently, many newspapers are publishing corruption-related news. But there are also some newspapers that do not publish objective news and journalists working there themselves get involved in corruption. This trend is observed especially in mofussil towns.

In each district, the Deputy Commissioner grants permission for publication of periodicals. The responsibility of monitoring the periodicity and content of published periodicals also lie with the Deputy Commissioner. Although there are District Information Officers in each district, the publication of periodicals and their monitoring does not fall under their jurisdiction. Centralized distribution of government advertisements through the Department of Films and Publications is another feature that needs to be remedied. This centralization gives rise to corruption, act as a coercive instrument of the government to control the press and reduces the efficiency of government departments in proper and timely disbursement of advertisements.

Recommendations:

• Massive publicity should be undertaken through radio and television to generate mass awareness regarding corruption.

• Through publicity on ethics and morality in the mass media, public opinion should be created against corruption.

• The power of granting permission for publication of periodicals should be transferred to the District Information Officers.

• The responsibility of monitoring the publication and circulation of periodicals should be vested on the District Information Officers.

• The newspapers should be encouraged to publish objective news.

• The responsibility of disbursement of government advertisements should lie with the respective departments instead of a centralized mechanism through the Department of Films and Publications as is in vogue now.

Conclusion

Corruption is an all-pervasive phenomenon in Bangladesh. It wields so much power now that people have accepted it as their fate. Corruption is present not only in developing countries but also in developed countries. In England, corruption was out of control for almost one hundred years. They succeeded in reducing corruption through a massive campaign against it. Countries like El Salvador have achieved lot of success in reducing corruption during the past five years. Corruption - on the other hand - has increased in countries like China, Indonesia and Colombia. It is still quite widespread in countries like Cameroon, Nigeria, Thailand, Vietnam, India, Pakistan and Turkey. The administrative and financial efficiency in these countries is very weak. The tax burden is very high and the tendency to take bribes is endemic.

Corruption is a major impediment to alleviation of poverty. In the absence of rigorous application of rule of law, corruption flourishes. It also discourages local and foreign investments and lowers production. Singapore has succeeded in reducing corruption and as a result its GDP growth rate is over 6.6 percent. If Bangladesh can reduce corruption to the level of Singapore, then the per capita growth rate would rise by 1.8 percent.

Each countries of the world should devise its own strategy to combat corruption. Variables, which may be political, economic, social, moral and administrative, influence the spread of corruption in society. In the existing scenario, a few years of relentless effort is required for tackling corruption in Bangladesh. At the same time, proper education and nurturing of ethical standards are also required. Corruption will definitely decrease if diversified efforts are undertaken with firm political commitment and unfettered sincerity. Forging of national consensus and a social movement for resisting corruption should be immediately undertaken for the purpose.